There is a copious literature - probably greater than I am aware of - on the syndrome of psychological phenomena named after the two famous or, if you prefer, notorious novelists who described them in their works from their own unfortunate experiences: the Marquis Donatien Alphonse Francois de Sade and the Chevalier Leopold de Sacher-Masoch.
The very fact that these phenomena are generally described as 'unnatural' or 'perverse' is sufficient evidence of the failure of psychology - which is, after all, a discipline of natural science - to understand and explain them. If there are any 'laws of nature', no human activity can 'pervert' or run counter to them.
As a matter of fact, the paradox of the widespread desire to suffer pain - for which I introduced in 1904 the term algolagnia to distinguish it from Offner's and von Schrenck-Notzing's concept of algolagnia, that is, sexual excitement or gratifcation obtained by suffering pain-exists only for the naive hedonist who believes that all human, indeed all animal, behaviour is aimed at obtaining a maximum of pleasure and a minimum of pain, or even asserts that the desire for pleasure and the fear of pain are the main motives of all our actions.
'Why', says St. Augustine, 'does man want to see (on the stage) mournful scenes full of misery which he would not himself care to live through in reality? And yet the spectator wants to be dolefully affected, nay the pain itself is what he relishes. Is not that a lamentable madness? . . . Is it, then, that tears and pains are loved? Yet every human being strives for pleasure!'
The truth of the matter is that the hedonistic theory of motivation is equivalent to the absurd belief of a person so deluded as to think that the power which drives motor vehicles through our streets or stops them at the crossings is provided by the rays emanating from the red and green traffic lights. If we adopt Münsterberg's and William James's more plausible view that emotions are complexes of somatic sensations, resulting from the motor and vasomotor, 'volitional' or 'conative' reactions of our body to its environment, pleasure and pain are seen to be nothing but the signals-green or red as it were - informing us of the positive or negative measure of our organism's adaptation to its spatio-temporal environment or to the particular constituent parts of it; in other words, of the 'utility' or 'disutility' of every 'thing' relevant to our survival and to the free or hampered expansion of our lives.
If pleasure and pain are such plus or minus signals conveyed to us by our somatic sensations, there must be some sort of sense-organ - presumably the sympathetic nervous system - for receiving and conveying this vitally necessary information to the reacting centre. In the absence of stimuli this sense organ would be subject to atrophy and degeneration, just as the eyes of the little reptile Proteus anguineus Laur. living in the dark underground caves and subterranean rivers of the Carso have become blind through absence of light.
Because a sense-organ degenerates by atrophy in the absence of the specific stimuli to which it reacts, every sense-organ may be said to stand in need of functional exercise, no less than every muscle of our body. Since it is as vitally necessary for an organism to experience pain as to enjoy pleasure, perhaps even more vital for it to be aware of dissatisfaction than of satisfaction, to be speedily informed of a lack of adaptation rather than of its perfected achievement, which it has to retain, quite possibly, by mere inaction - the organs for sensing pain need a minimum of stimulation just as much as do those for sensing pleasure. If an individual or a society is well enough adapted to its environment to feel moderately happy in this world - as Athens seems to have been in the days when she gave birth to the incomparable majesty of Greek tragedy, or Elizabethan England in the time of Shakespeare and his rivals - the need for experiencing, by 'sympathy', the sufferings of their less fortunate fellow creatures will be imperiously felt by a number of wealthy and happy citizens large enough to support the production of 'tragic' drama, and to accept works of art which present or recall subjects having a painful connotation. Nor is high tragedy, the spectacle of 'great suffering nobly borne', the only means of satisfying the need to stimulate our organs of pain-perception. The crowds attracted by the piteous, often sordid spectacle of real catastrophe or witnessing the horrors of bullfights, boxing matches, or the gladiatorial performances of the ancient Roman circus; the girl so well known to me years ago, who followed every funeral she could, just to have a good cry in sympathy with the bereaved; the other, now a major poet in my native language, who in her young days, remembering Andersen's tale of The Princess on the Pea, 'put pebbles into her shoes so as to feel a bodily pain to balance her mental suffering' and who 'in these years loved nothing so much as pain'; or the insensitive hysteric who burns the back of her hands with glowing cigarette stubs or match ends, all bear witness to a felt need for experiencing pain - not, of course, exceeding a certain varying limit of intensity. This limit can be raised to an astonishing height in cases where the desire for self-torture is reinforced by the strong mystical motives at the bottom of the various forms of religious asceticism.
The phenomena of algobulia will thus be seen to fall naturally and easily into a well known general pattern of appreciation applying to all our somatic and external sensations.
Everyone knows that our food and drink may be 'not sweet [sour, salt, bitter] enough', or 'too sweet' (cloying), 'too sour, too bitter, too salt'. A graph (below), its abscissa denoting the intensity of the sensation, its ordinate its 'positive' or 'negative' appreciation, will show a curve of typical shape: the dissatisfaction caused by a faint stimulus difficult to perceive diminishes and is gradually converted into growing satisfaction, which soon reverses its direction and turns again into increasing dissatisfaction when the intensity of the stimulus passes its optimum strength. The formula is known to apply to all sensations of colour, sound, pressure, friction, or warmth, to kinesthetic perceptions of movement (that is of difference of position in space-time), to all smells and to all tastes.

It is necessary to know this pattern of values or appreciation in order to understand the sadist and the masochist. The sadist, including the murderer of the Neville Heath type, is obviously a person of feeble sympathetic resonance - this being the general description of the 'a-social' individual - able to enjoy the most horrible real sufferings inflicted on others just as some of us can enjoy on the stage the fictitious pain of King Oedipus piercing his own eyes, because those sufferings are sufficiently toned down through their defective transmission to the torturer's consciousness to remain just below the limit of toleration, at or very near the highest point of 'ecstasy' that can be attained by algobulia. The masochist, too, is a person of subnormal emotional sensitivity whose need for emotional stimulation of a painful character cannot be fulfilled by the normal sympathy with the real, let alone the fictitious, sufferings of others, and must therefore be assuaged by a strong dose of pain directly inflicted upon his or her own organism.
While these considerations yield, no doubt, a measure of general understanding of the algobulic phenomena under review, they fail to explain the particular erotic side of the syndrome known to the sexologist as algolagnia. It is, of course, arguable that the adrenal internal secretions and the general tingling excitement caused by 'the lover's pinch which hurts but is desired' or Penthesileia's blood-sucking bites and scratchings are likely to irradiate into the specific sexual sphere and thus to excite an otherwise sluggish and unresponsive temperament. But it is by no means clear why such an indirect approach to the sexual through a general excitement should be more effective than the direct stimulation of the erogenous zones by the most expert caresses. It is not clear why the insult should not provoke an equally hostile reaction, rather than a loving and submissive response.
On the side of the active partner, the sadist who cannot become erotically excited otherwise than by inflicting cruelty of less or greater intensity on the object of his ruthless desires, there remains the paradox of the close, indeed necessary association between cruelty - the very word is derived from the Latin cruor = 'blood,' and means 'blood lust', culminating in murder and mutilation - and love, which is, according to St. Thomas, quoting Aristotle, 'the desire to do good' to the person who is the object of this emotion, i.e. 'benevolence'. Nor can the general theory account for such peculiar features as von Sacher-Masoch's 'domineering lady in the fur' - so alluringly represented by Rubens in the famous portrait of his second wife, the fair and rosy Hélène Fourment, in a dark fur but otherwise nude; or by Titian's portrait of his nude 'Bella' wrapped in a fur but baring one of her breasts, or for the fact that the type of Hercules with his club and lion's pelt is preferred by many a fair Deianeira to the charming and gentle Adonis. Finally, the characteristic gruesome cannibalistic features of sadistic murder remain entirely unexplained.
This is why psychopathologists have in the last resort turned to explaining sadism as an atavistic throwback to primeval savagery, a theory extended by C. Lombroso to all crimes of violence. The flaw in this argument is that it implies a total misrepresentation of the state of human evolution to which the term 'savagery' is properly applied. The word 'savage', from French sauvage, Italian selvaggio, Latin silvaticus, derived from silva, means nothing but a 'wood-dweller'. Now primitive man in the primeval virgin forest is most certainly not a killing, cruel, murderous or war-making animal; quite the reverse.
The Eskimo, the Yahgans of Tierra del Fuego, and numerous small tribes in the jungle recesses of India, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, New Guinea and the Philippines live to this day in complete ignorance of war. Professor L. T. Hobhouse enumerates twelve such timid, kindly and peaceful tribes. Sir Arthur Keith has added twenty-four more, and estimates that they still number in all about half a million persons. Some of them do not even hunt or kill animals. Sir Arthur Keith and Professor E. A. Hooton of Harvard have tried to deny that they are representative samples of the original peaceful bon sauvage of Rousseau and the ancient traditions of a Golden Age:

At vetus illa aetas cui fecimus aureae nomen
Fructibus arboreis et quas humus educat herbas
Fortunata fuit nee polluit ora cruore.

['But that ancient age which we call the age of gold was content with the fruits of trees and the crops that spring forth from the soil, and did not defile the mouth with blood.']

Both these distinguished authors have, however, conveniently overlooked the fact that our Primate ape ancestors were beyond any doubt perfectly innocuous frugivorous 'savages' or 'silvan' animals swinging from tree to tree in the primeval virgin forest.
With very few exceptions, all monkeys and apes eat nothing but fruit, seeds, tender shoots and leaves. The chimpanzee is sometimes said to devour occasionally a small bird, lizard or insect, but Dr G. M. Vevers, formerly superintendent of the London Zoological Gardens, assures me that he has never seen a chimpanzee eating meat, although he has often seen one catch a sparrow or rat intruding in its cage, play with the captured animal for a while and then throw it away.
If modern man - Neo-anthropus insipiens damnatus [Jacksi] - can correctly be described biologically, with William James, as 'the most formidable of all the beasts of prey and, indeed the only one that preys systematically on its own species' and if, on the contrary, like the monkeys and great apes, the primitive fruit-collecting and root-grubbing peaceful pygmy of the jungle is properly characterized by Plato, and other ancient philosophers as 'man the tame, unarmed animal', relying for his defence against attack only on his superior intelligence, there must have occurred at some time in the course of evolution a radical change in the human diet or modus vivendi, a mutation, as de Vries called these sudden, irrevocable alterations, such as is remembered in mankind's widespread traditions of a 'Fall' or 'original sin', with permanently disastrous consequences.
In other words, Pithecanthropus frugivorus, the arboreal fruitpicking man who could find enough succulent or hard-shelled fruits, berries, leaf-buds, young shoots and sprouts all the year round only in the tropical and subtropical forest belt, is the legendary 'good savage' of the primeval Golden Age, living on acorns and at peace with the other animals, like Adam, that is 'Man' in the 'garden of the desert', the oasis of the date-palm growers, and like the hairy Engidu eating herbs with the animals and drinking water at their pool in the Babylonian Gilgamesh epic. Just as the Malays call the great anthropoid apes living in the jungles of Borneo and Sumatra Orangutan, 'Wood-men', so the Romans named the aboriginal primitive inhabitants of the Italian forests - in historical times, rather the ghosts, which were believed to survive, of these by then extinct wood-dwellers - 'Silvani'. Another name for these wood-people was Fauni, from 'favere', i.e. the 'favouring', good spirits. Thus we encounter here also the notion of the bon sauvage, the harmless and kind wood-dweller, and by no means that of a primeval, predatory and cruel, bloodthirsty, a-social brute, a bête humaine, a type to which the modern sadist murderer could represent an 'atavist' throwback.
That man was from the beginning a social or gregarious animal was emphasized by Aristotle in a famous passage of his zoology. Everyone knows that he distinguishes gregarious animals from the dispersed and solitary. Among the gregarious creatures he singles out civic or urban animals - which work in collaboration, such as bees, wasps, ants or men.
The gregarious nature of Homo sapiens socialis proves that he cannot be descended from an ancestor similar to the solitary. Large apes of the chimpanzee, gorilla and orangutan type, but rather from some social species resembling the modern gibbon or siamang. The recent solitary, 'a-social' great apes armed with long powerful canine teeth for the fierce and passionate combats indulged in by the males in pursuit of the females - for instance among the present day Hamadryas baboons - seem to have evolved in a kind of blind-alley direction by a process of sexual selection which allowed only the strongest, tallest and most formidable males to transmit their individual characteristics to their offspring. This has led on the one hand to a constant increase in size of the species (gigantism), and on the other to a complete and permanent break-up of the social organism, such as can be observed temporarily during the mating period among otherwise gregarious species.
The social life of the monkey - and ape - herd that persists among the human species can, therefore, have been maintained and developed only among those Primates which refrained from the murderous sex fights leading to the evolution of the strong and protruding canines of the great apes and of Piltdown man as well as to the gigantism of Meganthropus palaeo-javanicus and Giganthropus sinensis of Java and southeastern Asia - the biblical 'giants' that 'were on earth'.
A species of this non-jealous, non-fighting kind is the Central American howler-monkey Alouatta pallida aequatorialis. The oestrous females of these wholly peaceful herds of leaf and fruit-eaters, who are almost entirely free from sexual envy and jealousy, accept all the males as they come and retire after having assuaged their appetites. The wooing is done now by the male, now by the female. Quarrels between the males, patiently looking on and waiting for their opportunity, are very rare, presumably because the number of adult females is far superior to that of adult males (a proportion of 42 per cent to 16 per cent was counted in the herds observed by Carpenter). This behaviour pattern allows all the males, not only the tallest and strongest, to transmit their characteristics to the offspring. It does not produce either dental or ungular armature or gigantism, but a completely integrated herd in which every female is conditioned to mating association with all males.
It is obvious that the peaceful, food-collecting pygmies, ignorant of war, who inhabit the jungles and virgin forests, must be descended from the non-fighting, howler-monkey type Primates whose sexual behaviour pattern survives 'archetypally' and atavistically in the average client of the public brothel, in the so-called voyeur and in the mari complaisant whose tolerance is despised by the average Frenchman and indeed by the possessive homme moyen of every nation.
This attitude has, however, been courageously defended by the great English poets Blake and Shelley and the equally great British philosopher Bertrand Russell against the prevailing public opinion which supports the possessive attitude of the jealous, sexually combatant male who considers himself entitled to kill both his rival and his faithless mistress or wife.
The peaceful, non-jealous attitude of the Alouatta has survived in a number of primitive tribes, such as the North Siberian Chukchi, where up to ten pairs may live together in a mating community and where a particular degree of kinship, 'newtungit', 'men having their wives in common', is recognized. The Polynesian inhabitants of the Pelew Islands have free-love clubs. What else were the witches' covens, esbats or sabbats, described with such picturesque detail in the reports of the witch trials held all over Europe and in New England down to the eighteenth century? 'The Yakuts see nothing immoral in free love, provided only that nobody suffers material loss by it'. The exchange of wives between brothers, cousins, friends, hosts and guests is often recorded as customary by ethnologists in many parts of the world. Only sociologists unfamiliar with the ways of our modern world would be willing to assert that group relations of this kind are entirely unknown among our contemporaries, although reliable evidence from written, let alone printed, documents is difficult to come by.
All through the history of mankind isolated attempts have been made to consolidate and safeguard the cohesion of the herd by eliminating the socially disruptive effects of sexual jealousy and possessiveness: the constitution of Sparta, attributed to Lycurgus, Plato's Utopian 'Republic', probably influenced by 'Lycurgus', intended to restore the primitive sexual communism said to have prevailed in pre-Hellenic Athens, the Niyoga doctrine of the Indian Arya Samaj, mating every man with, eleven women, every woman with eleven men, the Oneida community of the Christian mystic John H. Noyes (b. 1811) are the best known examples.
The atavist or, to use Jung's term, 'archetypal' character of these ideas is particularly clear where the principle of Free Love is encountered in connection with a strict 'paradisic', ethical vegetarianism and the absolute prohibition of killing any living creature, as for instance, in the case of the 'Angel Dancers' of Hackensack in New Jersey.
'We do not here attempt to decide the question whether the vegetarianism observed by several hundred millions of Hindus is a survival of a primeval, originally subhuman diet or rather an atavistic revival like the Orphic and Pythagorean abstention from all animal food among the ancient Greeks and Romans, among Oriental Christians and Manichaeans, as well as among some Occidental Christian sects, Humanitarians and Ethical Societies. What interests us in this context is rather the mysterious origin of the carnivorous or, more exactly, omnivorous diet of the vast majority of recent hunting, slaughtering and belligerent mankind.
The decisive step towards the solution of this fundamental problem was made by Wilfred Trotter (1872 - 1939) the famous surgeon in ordinary to King George V. He it is who added to the Aristotelian zoological foundation of sociology a momentous complement by pointing out the essential difference between a herd of mouflon or bison armed only with horns and hooves, but with their leading rams and bulls and properly posted sentries, all ready at a signal to take up a defensive formation against an attacker, and a pack of wolves, wild dogs, jackals, hyaenas, stoats, etc. organized for hunting in common. The pack itself contrasts with the feline stalking its prey alone, each animal for himself, with even the sexes keeping no permanent functional family company.
Because the Primates, including 'ape-man' and the earliest forms of man, must have been in the main harmless frugivorous animals, the gregarious structure of the Primate population can be described only as a number of herds, not of aggressive hunting packs. 'Good at shouting', like Homeric heroes, they frightened away threatening aggressors by a concert of raucous cries, their nearest attempts to offensive defence consisting presumably in a sustained pelting of their approaching carnivorous enemies or vegetarian competitors with stones and sticks.

Arma antiqua manus, ungues dentesque fuerunt
Et lapides et item silvarum fragmina rami

['The weapons of old time were the hands, the nails and teeth, stones, and broken off branches of trees.']

At the end of the pluvial period, however, man - described by Schiller and by Thomas Jefferson as the 'imitative animal' - driven by hunger to aggression, learned by 'aping' the habits of the gregarious beasts of prey that pursued these early Hominidae to hunt in common, biting and devouring alive the surrounded and run down booty.
This horrible procedure survives today in the atavistic religious rites still performed annually by the Moroccan brotherhood of the 'Isâwîyya. In the course of it men disguised as cats, lions, wolves, hyaenas-formerly by the appropriate pelt, now by means of garments painted to resemble animal skins - work themselves up by ritual dancing into a frenzy that enables them to tear to pieces with their bare hands living kids and lambs and to lacerate the victims with their teeth. I was able to show in 1929 the identity of this Berber rite with the Bacchic orgies of the Maenads or 'raving women' dressed in lynxes', leopards' or foxes' pelts and called, in a lost tragedy of Aeschylus, 'the vixens', tearing to pieces and 'devouring raw' fawns, kids, lambs, snakes, fish and even children; as well as with the tearing to pieces of the 'scapegoat' in the ancient Hebrew ritual of the Day of Atonement, originally part of the vintage feast, when the people dwelt in primitive booths of foliage, the 'tabernacles' of the Bible. In the cult of Bacchus, too, this frightful orgy is closely connected with the ritual of the grape harvest and the drinking of the heady new wine - forbidden to the Moslem Isâwîyya - which would combine with the ecstatic dancing to produce the required delirious intoxication.
The great number of ancient Indo-European tribal names, such as Luvians, Lycians, Lucanians, Dacians, Hyrcanians, etc., meaning 'wolf-men' or 'she-wolf-people' found in Italy, Greece, the Balkan peninsula, Asia Minor and Northwest Persia, and the numerous Germanic, Italic and Greek personal names meaning 'wolf' and 'she-wolf', clearly prove that the transition from the fruit-gathering herd of 'finders' to the lupine pack of carnivorous hunters was a conscious process accompanied by a deep emotional upheaval still remembered by man's subconscious, superindividual, ancestral memory (Jung), and reflected in the 'superstitions' - i.e. the surviving atavistic beliefs - about 'lycanthropy'. This is the Greek term, formed from lukhos = 'wolf' and authrpspia = 'humanity', for the dread folklore of men converted into 'werewolves' (Germanic wer, the Latin vir, means 'man', 'male').
The name 'lycanthropy' is used also by alienists to denote a particular form of raving madness manifesting itself in the patient's belief that he is a wolf, with lupine teeth, refusing to eat anything but raw, bloody meat, emitting bestial howls and indulging in unrestrained sexual attacks on any victim he can overpower. Such cases, described by Drs Hack Tuke and Bianchi, are now easy to understand as throwbacks to the atavistic behaviour pattern ritually preserved in the cathartic orgies of the Moroccan 'Isâwîyya and the Thracian worshippers of Dionysos Bakkhos. Ancient medicine would naturally confuse this form of psychosis with contagious canine rabies, communicable to dogs by the bite of wolves and to man by the bite of a dog, which causes man and dog to snap at and bite everything within reach and thus to spread the dread disease.
According to Germanic legends, the magic change is brought about by donning a wolf's pelt just as the 'Isâwîyya and the Bacchic maenads wrap themselves in animals' skins - by taking to the woods and living a nocturnal hunter's' and killer's wild and blood-stained vampire life.
The uncanny word was resuscitated in Germany in the secret terrorist and para-military 'Organization Werwolf' after the first World War, and again in Himmler's rabid speech on the new Volkssturm of 1945 destined to harass 'like were-wolves' the allied lines of communication in occupied Germany. It was of werewolves that Hitler was thinking when he said in his program for the education of the Hitler Jugend 'Youth must be indifferent to pain'. There must be no weakness or tenderness in it. He wanted 'to see once more in the eyes of a pitiless youth the gleam of pride and independence of the beast of prey' and to 'eradicate the thousands of years of human domestication'.
A gang of terrorists who call themselves 'the Werwolf Organization' obviously intend to 'organize' themselves and to be dreaded as a pack of wolves hunting down their victims in the dark of the night; and that is exactly what these counterrevolutionary conspirators did in 1920 and the years following.
Outbreaks of endemic lycanthropism have occurred before, notably in France at the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century, when rural poachers' gangsterism seems to have hidden behind the werewolf's mask, just as a recent native terrorist crimewave in the French and Belgian Congo, Kenya, and other African regions operated behind the sinister masquerade of a secret brotherhood of 'leopard-men' disguised in leopard skins, like the Dionysian maenads wearing panthers' or leopards' pelts, using appropriately carved sticks as stilts in order to leave leopards' spoor on the ground and iron leopards' claws to lacerate the victims of their nocturnal prowling.
The Chinese and, since the eleventh century, the Japanese had their 'werefoxes' corresponding to the 'vixens' of the 'Great Hunter' god Dionysos Zagreus. The Norsemen had their war-mad berserker, i.e. 'bear-skin coated' fighters, battalions of whom were employed as bodyguards by the Byzantine emperors. The ancient Arcadians of the Peloponnese were no idyllic shepherds, but rough northern invaders addicted to lycanthropic practices in the service of a wolf-suckled cannibal god Zeus Aukhaios, considering themselves as 'bears'.
The Teutonic counterpart to this Arcadian wolfish god is the Germanic Wodan (Odin) with his wolves, the 'Wild Hunter' chasing through the stormy nights at the head of his 'wild hunt'.
Since we gather from Greek sources - notably two vivid passages in Plutarch - that the fox-pelt-clad maenads or 'raving' women who worship the Thracian 'Great Hunter' god Surges did actually chase and beat the woods by night, armed with torches, staves and wooden spears, it is safe to conclude that the hounds of the northern 'Wild Hunt' heard 'coursing and barking' in the dark by frightened peasants awakened from their sleep, were neither imaginary spooks nor mythical personifications of storms and clouds, but secret gangs of poachers keeping up the old bloodthirsty pagan custom of the nightly werewolves' hunt a long time after Europe had adopted the milder rites of Christianity. So, also, the witches' rides to a meeting-place, where orgiastic dances and matings with goat-shaped 'devils' were performed, are the exact counterpart to the wild and primitive Bacchanalia - orgies idealized by the consummate art of the Greek sculptors, vase painters and tragic poets, whose accounts we cannot understand unless we retranslate them into the language of the original barbaric folklore to which they belong. The Moroccan compatriots of the above-mentioned 'Isâwîyya' believe in men who walk about by night in the shape of hyaenas and who cannot be shot.
'Lycanthropy', the transformation of the frugivorous human herd into a carnivorous park through the hunters' lupine travesty, must be at least as old as the remains of that primitive Chinese cave-dweller known as Sinanthropus whose cannibalistic habits were betrayed by the discovery of skulls the base whereof had been removed to give free access to the brain, and of others that bore external marks of violence. Similar evidence is afforded by the fossil remains of the ancient men of Java and of Homo Neanderthalensis whose stone tools (Mousterian), obviously those of non-vegetarians, were found associated with animal long bones charred and split for marrow.
While the jaw of Neanderthal 'man' shows the bovine type of molars adapted to the eating of hard seeds and tough roots by a species formerly feeding on the tender shoots and soft fruit available in plenty in a former warmer habitat, the jaw of recent man has been very plausibly explained by Marett as caused by a change of diet reducing the intake of vitamin C, that is by the transition to essentially carnivorous habits.
It seems legitimate to conclude that the bones of Sinanthropus and the flake-tool-making Neanderthalers (so closely associated with glacial Europe), represent the earliest human werwolf-packs, while the African and South Asiatic core-tools - the so called 'hand-axes', eminently suitable for root-grubbing and crushing - are the remains of the original innocuous vegetarian herds of early Man, whose mothers accidentally discovered gardening and agriculture when like squirrels they buried grain and other seeds or roots in the ground to store them up for the hungry winter season and found them sprouting and multiplying in the womb of the earth.
While these vegetarian herds are the ancestors of the recent wholly peaceful food-gathering tribes and of the primitive grain - and fruit-growing populations, the lupine packs of carnivorous predatory 'werewolves', running down and tearing their game to pieces, as the canine predatory beasts do, became the ancestors of the 'hunting' - i.e. 'hound'ing - tribes who attacked not only what we would now call 'subhuman' animals, but also preyed on the more conservative fruit-gathering human herds reluctant to adopt the bloodthirsty new mode of life, killing the males, raping and enslaving the females, falling upon them while they were gathering and treading the ripe grapes of the wild vines in the wood and enjoying the new must.
While the food-gatherers had left in peace 'every beast of the field and every fowl of the air' amidst the 'trees pleasant to the sight and good for food', using 'for meat' 'every herb-bearing seed' and 'the fruit of every tree', the new hunting type 'filled the earth with violence', putting the 'fear and dread of them into every beast of the earth, into every fowl of the air, into all that moveth upon the earth and into the fishes of the sea', 'delivered into' their 'hand even as the green herb'.
Man, who cannot eat grass, could move from the forest and jungle, where food-gathering pygmies live to this day, into the park-like glades, prairies and steppes of the post-glacial age and could survive and multiply during a phase of drought and forest recession by preying upon all the animals that feed on grass and leaves, assuming a more erect position with a wider outlook and developing the legs of a runner instead of the long arms of a Tarzan-like tree-dweller, climbing, dangling and swinging from limb to limb, from branch to branch.
But another, even more important, step forward in the conquest of the earth is involved in the process.
No subhuman animal makes or wears clothes, although not a few build 'houses'. But the characteristic transformation of 'man into wolf' is effected through man 'aping' the beast of prey by donning-like the cunning Dolon in Homer's Iliad the pelt of a wolf found dead or trapped in a pit covered with sods of turf and leaves, then killed and skinned with stoneknives and scrapers. The palaeolithic hunters of mammoth, reindeer, wild cattle and horses on the plains of south Russia and central Europe must have made themselves 'clothes of skin', since the stone scrapers for preparing these, and beautifully finished bone needles for sewing them together, are found in close proximity to each other.
The 'aprons' they 'made themselves' by 'sewing fig leaves together', are the garments of the so-called 'leaf-wearing races', such as the Kolarians of the Indian Deccan or the ancestors of the Sumerians, represented by their sculptors as wearing woollen kilts shaped so as to resemble aprons of palm or sacred fig-tree leaves. They are but another protective camouflage worn by the hunter chasing and stalking the animals of the jungle. The 'Green Wolf' of Jumièges gets his name from the wolf's mask, the wolfhede of the outcast in the Anglo-Saxon laws, worn over the face, and from the costume made of grass and leaves covering the body.
Versi-pellis, 'the turn-pelt', as the werwolf is called in Latin, manages to 'change his fur'. But he cannot at once divest himself of his own simian hair-coat, the lanugo surviving to this day in the embryonic state of man and in some individuals who preserve it throughout their adult life. A remarkable Greek tradition actually says that Adam and Eve were as shaggy as bears. Equally hairy was the Sumerian hero Engidu, who lived in peace with the wild animals at their drinking-place in the Babylonian Gilgamesh epic.
The Wambuttu dwarfs in the northwest of the Congo forest region, first seen by Stanley, fully described by Stuhlmann, still have their bodies completely covered with a down of this woolly hair (lanugo), between three and five millimetres long. On top of this they have long dark hair on their breasts and legs, especially the lower parts. The prehistoric bone sculpture known as the Venus of Brassempouy, and even more the well known 'Femme au renne' of Mas d'Azil and another male figure, are covered with lines which are clearly meant to indicate long hair covering the whole body.
But among people who chase game at top speed under the cover of a double fur, those can run best whose own hair-coat is thinnest. Because of this advantage, the members of the were wolves' hunting pack grew hairless, through natural selection among the 'cunning hunters', underneath the mimetic fur-coat still worn by the nomadic gazelle-hunters of the Syrian steppe and Arab desert, the main feature in the story of the shepherd Jacob impersonating the 'hairy' Esau. Having shed their own hair and adopted hunters' clothes of vegetable and animal matter which can be cast off in the heat and put on in the cold, these hunting werewolves were enabled to spread northwards and southwards beyond the temperate zone and to survive the successive glacial periods.
The proverb 'Clothes make the man' is true in the most fundamental sense. As the naked 'hairy hermit' of the St. Onuphrius type represents the ascetic return to the atavistic animal 'state of nature' and the 'innocence' of the 'naked savage' of a Paradisic age, the adoption of clothing to cover a nude, hairless body is generally believed to constitute the essential advance from sub human bestiality to civilized humanity.
We can now see that it was the 'clothes of skin' and the 'aprons of fig-leaves', that produced the nakedness of man, and not the other way round, the urge to cover man's nudity that led to the invention of clothing. It is obvious that neither man nor woman could be 'ashamed' (Gen. ii. 25) or 'afraid because they were naked' (Gen. iii. 10 f.) before they had donned their animal's pelt or hunters' 'apron of leaves', and got so accustomed to wearing it that the uncovering of their defenceless bodies gave them a feeling of cold, fear and the humiliating impression of being again reduced to the primitive fruit-gatherer's state of a helpless 'unarmed animal' exposed to the assault of the better equipped enemy. For nudity a to be felt as contrary to 'modesty', i.e. the modus vivendi, and to 'decorum', the covering or decoration of the hunter's body with skins or leaves must have been firmly established as the habitual modus of living; the uncovered body could not have been considered 'indecorous' or 'immoral' before the mores of clothing the hairless body, the custom of the costume, the habit of the habit had been acquired.
The very feeling of sin, the consciousness of having done something 'immoral', contrary to the mores, customs or habits of the herd, could not be experienced before a part of the herd had wrenched itself free from the inherited behaviour pattern and radically changed its way of life from that of a frugivorous to that of a carnivorous or omnivorous animal. The urge of the inherited 'mimetic' instinct - the automatic repetition of movements seen in others, which is the basis of all conformity within the herd - becomes a cause of change and non-conformism as soon as the mechanism of imitation extends its function beyond the bounds of the species, and Pithecanthropus, whose superior intelligence is but an extended range of imitation, begins to ape the beasts of prey.
William James's 'most formidable of all beasts of prey', 'the one that preys systematically on its own species', lives henceforth in permanent fear of punishment and retribution for what the poet-philosopher Empedocles of Akragas called 'the miserable deeds of devouring'.
Knowing that their ancestors were not carnivorous, men try to placate their resentment of the new ways by inviting the ancestral spirits of the tribe to take their share in the meat of the slaughtered victim, which becomes a 'sacrifice', or they return the red blood which 'is life' to the earth, before they allow themselves to eat the meat of the killed animal.
Unable to draw a dividing line between animals and plants, the primitive savage now feels guilty of having tortured 'John Barley-corn' when he mows down the cereal plants and mills or malts them, or of having torn the vine - and grape - god Dionysos limb from limb in the process of the vintage rites. He invents the most artful methods of placating the outraged spirits of fauna and flora and of atoning for the fatal necessity of living by taking life -which not even the Manichaean 'perfect ones' can avoid by living on 'fruit fallen by its own motion', brought to them by their 'not yet perfect' disciples.
The idea that it is 'sinful' to shed the blood that is 'life' retained in the course of the transition from the vegetarian to the carnivore - and the belief that expiatory rites are required to avert the dangers connected with a practice that it was never really intended to abandon, since its results had proved so advantageous to the lupine pack, caused a consciousness of 'sin' and of a need for apotropaic ceremonies to attach itself even to the effusion of blood resulting from sexual intercourse with virgins. These the aggressive pack would, whenever occasion offered, kidnap and carry away from among the females of the weaker fruit-gathering tribes so as by this new practice of 'exogamy' to avoid the otherwise inevitable, risky fight with the leader of the wolf-pack claiming for himself the females of the lupine clan. Judges xix. 22-28; xxi. I9-22, shows how violently the children of Ben Jamîn - the 'Yemenite' or 'southerner' - roaming on the fringe of the desert of Judah, 'ravening as a wolf, in the morning devouring the prey and at night dividing the spoil' (Gen. xlix. 27), wooed the females of the more peaceful bovine and ovine, quietly grazing herds who called themselves the 'Sons of the Wild Cow' (benê Le'ah) and the 'Sons of the Ewe' (benêe Rachel). It is easy to understand that blood-lustful rape of this kind could not fail to appear, even to the lupine hunters, as a sinful perversion of the gentle folkways customary among the peaceful food-gatherers, which survive to this day among the Trobriand Islanders studied by Malinowski and the Tahitians painted by Gauguin.
There is no other possibility of explaining the widespread, evidently archetypal feeling of guilt attached to sexual cohabitation, in itself a perfectly 'innocent' harmless biological function which must have been, in the original peaceful state of herd-life, as unrestricted by inhibitions as the equally 'innocent', 'natural' and biologically necessary act of feeding without killing.
On the basis of all these observations it seems legitimate to describe recent man - Homo Neanthropus - as a crossbred species.
We are all descended from males of the carnivorous lycanthropic variety, a mutation evolved under the pressure of hunger caused by the climatic change at the end of the pluvial period, which induced indiscriminate, even cannibalistic predatory aggression, culminating in the rape and sometimes even in the devouring of the females of the original peaceful fruit-eating bon sauvage remaining in the primeval virgin forests.
The characteristics of the fruit-collecting, seed - and root - planting agricultural mothers, worshippers of the ancestral a goddesses Dêmêtêr and Korê, as well as those of the lupine, omnivorous fathers, sons of the Lupa Romana, raping the 'Sabine' women of the vineyards, worshipping a skygod Zeus Aukhaios, 'he of the she-wolf', and apple-god Apollo Aukhaios, 'born of the she-wolf', and a 'virgin' bear - and wolf - goddess Artemis Aukheie, the representative ancestress of the sterile women in the bear-skin or wolves' pelt who hunted with the men, while the child-bearing mothers kept at home in cave or hut, are handed down in various proportions and combinations according to Mendelian laws. The two sets of characteristic functions combine and develop under the conditions created by the mating and breeding laws or customs of the various hunting, pastoral and herding man-wolf packs, who rule so sternly their subject-herds of peaceful bovine and ovine slaves and serfs: as Horace says

Nos numerus sumus et fruges consumere nati.

['We are the masses born to eat the fruits' of the earth and to leave the meat to our masters.']

All of them have, therefore, common 'archetypal' race-memories of an original peaceful life among the fruit-bearing trees of some terrestrial paradise. This is the reason for the quiet bliss felt by so many of us when walking through or resting in woods and forests (for Tacitus [Germania 5, 1] and the other sons of the Lupa Romana the wooded regions of northern Europe were, on the contrary, silvis horridae) ; why we love nothing so much as picking nuts and berries and the ripe fruits of the trees; why we can still feel tempted by a dessert of fruit at the end of a lengthy dinner when nothing could induce us to start on another dish of meat or fish.
To make it a true 'paradise', it must, of course, be a pairidaësa, an 'enclosure' of trees protected from the dangers 'outside', a park (Anglo-Saxon pearroc, parrak), a garth, hortus or 'garden', such as Macaulay described nostalgically in his diary in June 1834: 'We passed through a garden which was attached to the residence of the Nabob of the Carnatic, who anciently held his court at Arcot. The garden has been suffered to run to waste, and is only the more beautiful for having been neglected. Garden, indeed, is hardly a proper word. In England it would rank as one of our noblest parks, from which it differs principally in this, that most of the fine trees are fruit trees.' Who can read these lines without wishing to live in this park for ever after? This is why, at all times and everywhere, men who have had the wealth, power and time to do so have crowned their worldly achievements by laying out parks modelled on the archetypal idea of 'paradise' and 'the garden' out of which man has been driven. Macaulay was well aware of this: 'After going down for about an hour we emerged from the clouds and moisture, and the plain of Mysore lay before us - a vast ocean of foliage on which the sun was shining gloriously. I am very little given to cant about the beauties of nature, but I was moved almost to tears. I jumped off the palanquin, and walked in front of it down the immense declivity. In two hours we descended about three thousand feet. Every turning in the road showed the boundless forest below in some new point of view. I was greatly struck with the resemblance which this prodigious jungle, as old as the world and planted by nature, bears to the fine works of the great English landscape gardeners. It was exactly a Wentworth Park as large as Devonshire.'
This longing for the lost paradise is the reason why children love nothing so much as a seat high in the fork of a tree up to which they can climb, retire from this world of worries and day dream. The Plessis-Robinson near Paris - now built over with modern blocks of flats in the 'functional' style of architecture - used in my young days to be such a paradise, a group of big old planes with primitive tables and seats in the tree-tops where students and other bohémiens could have lunch with their girls, undisturbed by the Philistines. There lived at that time, in this country, a very eminent Peer of the Realm who had to be called by a liveried flunkey from his retreat in the top of an immense tree in his park, whenever visitors arrived whom he had agreed to see.
As Jung saw so clearly, the tradition of a 'Fall from the Garden of Eden' is an archetype. The vast sales of the naive Tarzan novels and the immense success of the acrobatic cinema star Johnny Weissmüller swinging by the strength of his arms from one tree branch to another in the films derived from these stories can be understood only if we know that it is the archetypal background of the human mind that is stirred by these infantile day dreams. Recurrent dreams of flying, not by flapping one's arms, but by swinging oneself through the air as a circus athlete flings himself from one trapeze to another, rise from the same layer of the subconscious.
Prof. Jung, whose undying merit it is to have shown that archetypes may be rooted not only in the ancestral, but even in the subhuman animal strata of the 'collective unconscious', has published a series of dreams recorded, without any interference on his part, by one of his pupils, Dr Erna Rosenbaum, now in London; at a time, moreover, when he was not yet acquainted with my own studies of lycanthropy and was therefore entirely unaware of the striking confirmation which his most illuminating theory has received from certain features of these dreams. After what we have been discussing so far, they will now appear completely transparent to the reader.
In the sixteenth dream of the second series, the patient, obviously familiar with Darwin's Descent of Man or at least with some popular book on the subject, sees 'many people. All walk in the direction from right to left around a square.' (The square is a familiar symbol of the quattuor cardines mundi, the Tessara Kheutra Khosmou, the 'four corners of the world', East, South, West, North. Walking in this square 'widdershins', that is counter-clockwise, means running counter to the movement of the sun, that is, in the wrong direction.) Somehow they all have taken 'the wrong turn'. At least it seems so, although we should know that our world, the earth, does turn round in this way and carries us, willy-nilly, along with it. 'It is said' in the reported dream: 'it is intended to restore the gibbon'. On this striking statement Jung remarks: 'This apparently means nothing else but that it is proposed to restore the anthropoid, the archaic state of man.' The operative word is, however, 'the gibbon', the particular Primate species which is still a social being living in a herd, and not the solitary suspicious a-social great ape of the gorilla, chimpanzee or orangutan type.
In the first dream of the first series, the dreamer 'found himself in a society' - obviously the herd - 'from which he takes leave', that is to say, he prepares to withdraw from the social organism. About to go, 'puts on a strange hat'. This is, of course, the disguising head-gear of the haunskull or wolfshead, the khunee or lukheie or ikhtidee, as the Greeks called the original protective helmet of the werewolf about to take to the woods and to become an outlaw. In the third dream, 'just before falling asleep', he sees himself 'at the sea coast'. 'The sea breaks the dykes and invades the land, flooding everything.' This is, of course, the Deluge, called in the German language of the dreamer 'die Sintflut', a word popularly understood as 'the flood avenging the sins' of men after the Fall. Then he finds himself 'sitting on a desert island' (like Noah on the top of mount Ararat or Robinson Crusoe on his island). For man isolated, as Jung interprets the vision, by the breaking in or welling up of the flood of the unconscious, the task is to 'reconstruct the gibbon', i.e. the gregarious life of the original hominid from which he has broken away through the process of individualization. In the fourth dream, he is 'surrounded by many indistinct women's figures', evidently the undifferentiated females of the herd. That the dreamer is perfectly aware of the distinction between the social and the solitary Primates becomes manifest in dream No. 22 of the first series: 'He is in the virgin forest, an elephant is rather threatening' - the dreamer is apprehensive of larger animals and formidable tusks - 'then a large anthropoid ape or bear' - the 'berserk', man masquerading as a bear - 'or a caveman with a club, threatening to assault the dreamer'.
In the 32nd dream of the second series there are 'many apes' (Affen) 'in the primeval forest. Then a view opens upon extensive glaciers.' This is clearly an archetypal reminiscence of the 'racial memory' of the creatures in the virgin forests seeing with anxiety for thousands or myriads of years the northern glaciers engulfing more and more of the vegetation of the temperate zone at the beginning of the glacial age. The reader may say it is simply the educated dreamer remembering speculations of his own on what the monkeys and apes in the virgin forest must have felt while their 'way of life' was more and more threatened by the slow climatic change. That may be so. But he certainly showed no sign of being able to understand his dream, otherwise Jung would have given the above explanation of the glaciers instead of what he says on their connection with a previous dream-vision of the Milky Way.
The vision of the apes in the virgin forest bordering upon glaciers is preceded by a drawing contained in 'a letter from the unknown woman who writes that she feels pains in her womb'. The drawing shows unmistakably a winding serpentine path with a directional arrow showing the way from the 'Primeval Forest' - threatened by the approaching ice - flood-back into the warm womb of Mother Earth. She is the 'unknown woman' who receives her children back into her womb with a feeling of pain as a mother gives birth to her children.
In the preceding 'visual impression No. 21 he is surrounded by Nymphs' - mythological figures whose name means nothing but 'brides', with a connotation of alluring sylvan beings. A voice says 'We were always there, only you have not noticed us'. The dreamer realizes that he has all the time been surrounded by fascinating females, only he was not aware of it. Dream No. II explains why this was so: A voice says 'But you are still only a child,' meaning that he has still to grow up. In the ninth dream he sees 'a green country where many sheep are browsing. It is the Sheep Country.' In the tenth dream - a visual impression - 'the Unknown Woman is seen standing in the Sheep Country, showing the Way'.
Nothing could be clearer. The green and pleasant land where sheep are browsing is the promised land where the original frugivorous herd is living in peace. The 'Unknown Woman' is the Anima or archetypal representation of the dreamer's own soul pointing the right way of life.
The best illustration of this dream is an early Christian catacomb painting from the Coemeterium Ostianum, illustrating the Vision of Perpetua. It shows the departed soul in the shape of an orans or praying woman standing among a herd of sheep. These symbolize the true Israel, the benê Rachel or 'sons of the Ewe' feeding on God's pastures. In the sixth dream he had seen 'a veiled female figure sitting on steps' - a vision that corresponds closely to Botticelli's famous Derelitta. The picture shows Tamar having been raped by her brother Amnon and thrown out from the royal palace in her shame. In the seventh dream 'the shrouded woman unveils her face' -a vision that can be wonderfully illustrated by a relief from the archaic Greek temple of Selinus in Sicily showing the Auakhalupteria Kores, the unveiling of the sky-god's divine bride. Her face shines like the sun.''
Clearly the dreamer has achieved the radiant illumination of his own subconscious soul. The previously veiled anima now reveals her hitherto shrouded face.
I do not think that there could be a more striking revelation of the archetypes we have just discussed than in this series of wish-dreams concerning the 'restoration of the gibbon'.
I myself remember vividly how, having gone up to the top of the Eiffel Tower in Paris some twenty years ago on a windy day, I felt with dismay the steel structure swaying like a reed in the storm. The most astonishing features of the adventure were two strange experiences: first of all, my soles enclosed in socks and shoes, contracted in a curious sort of cramp, as if my feet were still prehensile limbs, clinging to the branch of a tree. Secondly, while I was looking down on the city from behind a seven-foot-high steel and wire lattice-railing, surrounding the platform, I felt an overwhelming urge to throw myself down, head forward, into the abyss - the very temptation of the devil, sensed by Jesus on the top of the mountain, and according to Josephus by every visitor to ancient Jerusalem who looked down from the ramparts of the Temple into the valley below.
This urge, fatal to a human being of our time seized - by vertigo on a projecting height, was eminently beneficial for the Primate climbing by means of his prehensile arms and feet, who would be killed by falling vertically to the ground from a swaying or breaking branch high up on a tree, but could save himself easily by jumping off in good time head forward and getting hold of another branch with his hands. Every parachutist knows how much easier it is to 'bale out' by jumping forward than by allowing oneself to fall passively out of the trapdoor. All this is archetypal.
So is, of course, the erotic fascination exerted upon the contemporary, masochist by the naked 'Venus in the fur', representing 'la femme fauae', the nude blood-stained maenad or 'raving woman' in her bear-, lynx- or fox-pelt, coursing with her furiously excited male partners in the pack of the Wild Hunter through the primeval forests, vying with them in bloodlust when they came 'in at the death' and finally assuaging in a wild embrace their common, mad excitement after the omophagic orgy, feasting on the live, raw and bloody meat of the quarry.
The tender young poetess, so 'fond of grief' as a source of artistic inspiration, who describes 'thoughts as assailing the poet, whose lust cries out from inside', 'like wolves' that have to be 'tamed', has unwittingly and with the deepest intuition revealed the atavistic, archetypal Dionysian, Orphic and Apollonian background of her 'love of pain'. It was not unusual in Austria or Germany before 1926, as it is now in the English-speaking countries, to call any 'Don Juan' and successful 'big dame hunter' a 'wolf'. The expression, which is certainly archetypal, became current only during World War II. Being archetypal it can, nevertheless, be used to explain the striking metaphor of the poetess assailed by 'thoughts as by wolves', - by imaginary 'wolves', that is, by rough suitors or rapers who have to be 'tamed'. At the same time she identifies herself with the (non-existent) 'Princess upon the Swords'. What she means is the 'Madonna of the swords', the suffering great Virgin Mother of the Logos, the poet's inspiration, whose birth she was to celebrate in later years in a magnificent mystical poem equal to the greatest creations of Blake.
As archetypal as the male masochist's ideal of the nude 'Lady in the Pelt' and the feminine wish-dream of being assaulted by wolves, 'lust crying out from the inside', followed by the pains of motherhood in consequence of such rape suffered by the maiden 'lover of pain', is the male Actaeon's conversion into a stag torn to pieces by the hounds of merciless wolfish Artemis Lykeia because he has seen her naked, that is, without her pelt, bathing in a woodland lake.
Archetypally, these hounds are rather 'bitches', as we know that the English-speaking peoples call the loose-living primordially promiscuous woman a 'bitch', just as the Romans and the Greeks called her a 'she-wolf' (lupa and lukhe).
Archetypal also are the sadist murderer's practices of beating his quarry with the hunting rider's horse-whip, of binding the victim like a captured animal, dragging the naked body over the ground and through the undergrowth. So are the cannibalistic and at the same time infantile bitings into the breasts, the disembowelling and sometimes tearing or cutting to pieces of the body.
Wild archetypal dreams of this sort may break through into the consciousness of persons otherwise apparently quite harmless. An Oxford psychoanalyst was consulted in 1946 by a young don, just back from the war, who wanted to be cured of homosexual habits acquired under the circumstances described by T. E. Lawrence in his Seven Pillars of Wisdom, so as to be able to marry and 'settle down again'. It so happened that he met at that time a charming girl who fell for this very good-looking man and began to make advances to him in the way best described by Bernard Shaw. The psyche-analyst encouraged his patient to respond and to take the young lady out now and then, to see how this experience would react upon the feelings he wanted to get rid of. The result was that the patient remorsefully reported a few days later a frightful dream he had had of cutting the girl in pieces - like the victim of the Benjaminite ravening 'wolves' in the Book of Judges. No one can say, of course, whether or not the lycanthropic impulse manifested by such a dream will or will not break out into an actual blood-curdling crime.
As a matter of fact, murderous sadistic assaults are sometimes committed by well-educated, highly intelligent persons with no previous convictions or with a record showing no more, at the worst, than minor sexual irregularities, especially so-called exhibitionist practices, now easily understandable as throwbacks to the habits of the hairy Primate who had not yet donned the hunter's 'coat of skin' or 'apron of leaves' and grown naked under it. Such self-exhibitions, which can be and are made respectable and socially acceptable by the organization of nudist societies keeping apart from the rest of the community, are like 'ethical vegetarianism', radical pacificism, 'simple living', etc., symptomatic defence reactions against the pressure of the archetypal lupine urge that is subconsciously experienced by individuals unable to give free expression to their passions through the so-called 'blood-sports' of riding to hounds, big-game shooting, soldiering and similar 'cathartic' 'ab-reactions.' Individuals, impelled to cast off their clothes and to yield to Rousseau's nostalgic cri de cæur 'retournons à la nature', but who nevertheless do not join one of the many terrestrial 'paradises' of organized nudism, reveal by this reluctance to follow the path of least resistance an invincible a-social 'lone wolf' character which under certain conditions may easily become very dangerous.
It is very important to state quite frankly that in many cases sadistic murders are unpremeditated reactions to the provocative behaviour of their female victims, yielding up to a point to the suitor's quite normal, though rather rough and pressing, wooing, and then infuriating him by a final, frightened or coy withdrawal. Nothing could be more apt to rouse the lupine beast in a man, however slightly affected by a predisposition to lycanthropy.
Teachers assuming the delicate, but absolutely necessary, task of sexual instruction and education of the young should not fail to warn their charges against embarking on a dangerous path of erotic adventure where sudden, timorous or capricious retreat may be fraught with extreme risk. There will always be women as well as men who have decided to 'live dangerously', but I can see no reason why, young or old, they should go on living as ignorantly as they now do.
The main purpose of this paper is not, however, either to enlighten them or to tell judges and juries that a sadistic murderer is no more 'responsible' for the werewolf behaviour pattern re-emerging from the abyss of the collective unconscious in this particular individual than another person is 'responsible' for being an atavist throwback to the 'hairy ape' type and having a body as shaggy as a bear. There is no point in such an argument, since the vindictive attitude of judges and juries, rationalizing their behaviour as due to their anxiety to protect the potential victims of other such 'criminal perverts', is no less 'determined' by their ancestral and personal, archetypal and recent conditioning than that of the criminal. As he must kill, they must condemn him to be killed, until the peaceful, non-aggressive, 'bovine' or 'tauric' herd of 'John Bulls' succeeds in preventing, by a majority vote, the lupine pack from killing by legal process. We must not forget that the establishment of rule by majority-vote with the concomitant respect for minority opinion - misleadingly called 'democracy' - itself represents such a victory over the violent and revengeful of the meek who shall inherit the earth.
Thus we arrive at the ?nal conclusion of an inquiry originally started, not for a psychological, but for a sociological purpose. What has been so far written is really meant to be the starting-point for a new approach to the greatest and most topical problem, not of this age of supreme anxiety only, but of all history: must wars, 'human nature being what it is', go on until the human race has killed itself off for good and all by mutual annihilation, or is there a hope of peace on earth left for the non-violent who do not want to kill?
The plain answer is that if it were true that all our ancestors have been carnivorous, or even omnivorous, predatory beasts, I would resignedly admit that, 'human nature being what it is', wars must inevitably go on to that bitter end which may be as near as many of us fear. If there was never a Fall, there can never have been and there can never be a redemption in the future. If, however, there was a most definite Fall, if 'human nature' was originally not lupine but that of a peaceful, frugivorous, non-fighting and not even jealous animal, which developed its present predatory, murderous and jealous habits only under extreme environmental pressure by extra-specific imitation of the blood-lustful enemies of it own species, then there is hope of changing our social organization and our environment, gradually or suddenly, in such a way that we can throw off the fatal wolf's mask, tame the 'archetypal' beast in ourselves, and restore mankind to its pristine state of ahimsa or innocence, so achieving peace on earth for men of good will.

This was a speech given by Robert Eilser to the Psychiatric Section of the Royal Society of Medicine sometime in the late 1940s in London, England and is a portion of his book, Man Into Wolf.